GENERALISED ANXIETY DISORDER occurs when a person starts worrying excessively and is unable to stop worrying. The person with GAD has difficulty switching off the ‘worry button’ and continues to engage from one worry to another, picking up on minor daily events. Common signs and symptoms of GAD include:
• Muscle tension
• Mental agitation
• Fatigue
• Irritability
• Persistent anxious thoughts on most days of the week
• Inability to sleep
• Excessive worry

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SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER occurs when a person experiences excessive fear and anxiety in a social situation. The person may be afraid of speaking in social situations for fear of embarrassment or humiliation. This fear may arise from a lack of social skills and the socially anxious person usually avoids distress in social situations. Living with such anxiety affects work, study, relationships, and other important life activities. Common signs and symptoms of social anxiety disorder include:
• Racing heart
• Dizziness or lightheadedness
• Breathlessness
• Nausea
• Upset stomach
• Trembling
• Muscle tension

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PANIC DISORDER is marked by panic attacks that occur ‘out of the blue’ and is characterised by intense fear or acute discomfort, and may also be accompanied by breathlessness, heart palpitations, dizziness, and chest pains. This affects a person’s life functions, as persons who have had a previous panic attack refrains from the same activity that had triggered the attack. Participation in normal activities is diminished for fear of losing control, and the person is distressed by irrational thoughts of having no means to escape the anticipated danger. Common signs and symptoms of panic disorder include:
• Shortness of breath
• Hyperventilation
• Chest pains or discomfort
• Choking feeling
• Numbness
• Faintness
• Fear of losing control

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PHOBIA is marked by an excessive and irrational fear of an object or situation. This interferes with the person’s ability to function and the most common symptom is a panic attack, although some may not experience a panic attack but just intense fear. Phobias can be debilitating when the level of fear becomes disproportionate to the risks involved, but with therapy to address these fears, life can be fulfilling and rebalanced. Common signs and symptoms of phobia include:
• Intense fear
• Avoidance of the object or situation or activity
• Feeling the need to escape from the object, situation or activity
• Shortness of breath
• Choking sensations
• Chest pains or discomfort

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PTSD is an emotional disorder that results from a traumatic experience. Exposure to traumatic events like physical assaults, accidents, natural disasters or sudden death of a loved one can leave a person feeling helpless and fearful. The traumatic events may be relived through intrusive memories, nightmares, and flashbacks with intense emotions. The person can be easily startled and prone to anger. Common signs and symptoms of PTSD include:
• Flashbacks or nightmares
• Avoiding places where the traumatic event occurred
• Feeling detached from others
• Feeling emotionally numb
• Feeling jumpy
• Loss of interest and usual activities
• Angry outbursts
• Irritability
• Difficulty in sleeping
• Hypervigilance

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OCD stems from anxiety that develops into a disorder marked by unwanted, persistent, intrusive thoughts as well as repetitive actions. Obsessive thoughts are intrusive, mostly meaningless, with images or urges that the person tries to resist. Compulsions are the thoughts and actions used by the person to suppress the obsessions in order to obtain psychological relief. With an intense fear of dirt and contamination, a person may engage in frequent and lengthy cleaning rituals to ease that fear and anxiety. Common signs and symptoms of OCD include:
• Repeated checking of doors to ensure that they are locked, checking that lights switches and electrical or gas appliances are turned off
• Checking and rechecking on loved ones’ safety
• Counting, tapping or repeating phrases to reduce irrational fears and anxiety
• Persistent thoughts of harm to self or family
• Having to complete certain rituals before going out
• Frequent washing of hands or body

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DEPRESSION is a common mood disorder usually characterised by loss of interest, inability to sleep, loss of concentration, feelings of worthlessness, and persistent sadness. Depression can happen to anyone and is not restricted to age or gender. Depression can also happen to women after going through child-birth, to people who are adjusting to a new environment, and to people who have lost a loved one or significant other. Although feeling down is a normal part of life, when these depressive symptoms overwhelm and impact normal daily function, hopelessness and despair take over. If you have been feeling listless and lethargic for no good reason and others observe a change in your mood, it may be a call for professional help. In a depressed mood state, getting through the day is tough for you, as this persistent sadness interferes with your work, study, other daily responsibilities, relationships, and prevents you from enjoying your normal fun and recreation. Common signs and symptoms of depression include:
• Feeling helpless or hopeless
• Loss of interest in usual daily activities
• Changes in sleep patterns
• Anger
• Irritability
• Feeling guilty or ashamed
• Loss of concentration
• Changes in appetite

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POST-NATAL DEPRESSION occurs in mothers following child-birth. Commonly known as ‘baby blues’, they mimic the common symptoms of depression become more intense and last longer. These symptoms interfere with the mother’s ability to take care of herself and of her baby, associate with severe mood swings, excessive crying, intense irritability and guilt of not being a good mother, leading to an inability to bond with the baby. Common signs and symptoms of post-natal depression include:
• Difficulty in sleeping
• Loss of appetite
• Excessive fatigue
• Feelings of worthlessness
• Frequent changes of mood
• Loss of pleasure
• Thoughts of death, suicide or hurting someone else

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BIPOLAR DISORDER parallels major depressive disorder but is marked by severe shifts in mood resulting in alternating between high mania and low moods. Impulsivity and ‘roller-coaster’ behaviours are characteristic of mania, and feelings of fatigue and hopelessness are characteristic of low mood. These swings between mania and low mood impact negatively on the individual’s daily function including work and study performance, and social relationships. A combination of highs and lows also puts the person at risk of suicide. Common signs and symptoms of bipolar disorder include:
• Feelings of heightened energy/creativity
• Increased hyperactivity
• Rapid and racing manner of speech
• Racing thoughts
• Sleeping very little but feeling extremely energetic
• Engaging in reckless behaviour
• Impaired judgement and impulsivity
• Depression combined with feelings of agitation, irritability, anxiety

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BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER is a serious mental health disorder characterised by unstable mood and disrupted relationships in a person’s life. The person with BPD tends to experience turbulent relationships, with fears of abandonment, lack of control over emotions, and difficulty in relating to others. The person with BPD tends to engage frequently in self-harming behaviours like cutting or burning oneself, and adopts extreme measures to avoid real or imagined separation and rejection. Common signs and symptoms of BPD include:
• An intense fear of abandonment
• Mood swings
• A pervasive pattern of unstable interpersonal relationships
• Feelings of emptiness
• Recurrent suicidal behaviour, gestures or threats, or self-mutilation
• Unstable self-image
• Intense anger or difficulty in controlling anger

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GRIEF is a natural response to loss of a loved one through death, divorce or separation. Losses can also take the form of jobs, pets, anything that had contributed to stability, happiness, and joy. The more significant the relationship, the more intense the loss. The emotional pain accompanying this loss is normal but it can incapacitate the individual’s life function. Every individual grieves differently and while there is no fixed time-table for grieving, it is a natural way of confronting and managing loss after the event. Common signs and symptoms of grief include:
• Constant sadness
• Loss of interest
• Feelings of guilt or helplessness
• Preoccupation with loss
• Inability to show or experience joy
• Insomnia

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ANGER is associated with aggressive, violent or self-destructive behaviours. These are usually driven by a repressed rage which can turn into resentment and bitterness when not managed appropriately. Although a normal emotion, it is important to deal with anger in a positive way so that it does not negatively impact our health and relationships. Anger is experienced frequently by persons of all ages, backgrounds, and occupations, but it becomes problematic when it is excessive in frequency and duration, while being disproportionate to the situation or other person triggering the anger. A proactive step in anger management helps you understand what anger is, its relation to other emotions, and why it is important to reduce that anger which leads to frustration and emotional distress. This process will enable you to express your needs while keeping yourself calm, in control, and maintain healthy relationships. Common signs and symptoms associated with excessive anger that is beyond control include:
• Tingling sensations
• Tightness in the chest
• Heart palpitations
• Increased blood pressure
• Tightness in the head
• Fatigue
• Physical violence
• Threats of violence
• Erratic behaviour like breaking things or reckless driving

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RELATIONSHIP PROBLEMS can occur in close, intimate, committed, married or unmarried couples. Meaningful relationships provide us with a deep fulfillment in our lives. But when conflicts occur and which cannot be resolved, the healthy and loving relationship breaks down. It is rare for a couple not to encounter ‘bumps’ in their relationship, but being frustrated with your partner is unhelpful and allows your relationship to fall apart. When conflicts are not appropriately addressed, the relationship suffers. Common signs and symptoms of relationships that are problematic include:
• Conflicts continue to escalate without slowing down
• Both partners feel rejected and dejected
• Avoidance of discussion or forgiveness
• Both partners are unwilling to compromise
• Overreaction to past misdeeds of either partner
• Either partner feels criticized and let down
• Differences are not resolved but emphasized

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INSOMNIA is a symptom of a sleeping disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. Insomnia is a symptom, not a medical diagnosis or a disease. Insomnia is associated with difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, and is typically followed by functional impairment while awake. Possible causes of insomnia include:
• Hormonal changes (in women)
• Decreased melatonin, the hormone that controls sleep-wake cycle
• Pain, caused by a medical illness or injury that interfere with sleep
• Medical conditions like sleep apnea
• Anxiety or depression due to work stress, financial worries, concerns over relationships, major changes or losses in life

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The standardized administration of cognitive tests and the individualized interpretation of results can reveal much about brain-behavior relationships and brain function. Neuropsychological testing is recommended for the assessment and diagnosis of cognitive impairment and dementia in older adults. Practice guidelines support neuropsychological testing in this population to identify mild cognitive impairment and to differentiate be­tween types of dementia.

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Dementia caregiving can be challenging and, often times, overwhelming. Frustration is a normal and valid emotional response to many of the difficulties of being a caregiver. While some irritation may be part of everyday life as a caregiver, feeling extreme frustration can have serious consequences for you or the person you care for. Frustration and stress may negatively impact your physical health or cause you to be physically or verbally aggressive towards your loved one. If your caregiving situation is causing you extreme frustration or anger, you may want to explore new techniques for coping from qualified mental health professionals.

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Stroke or cerebrovascular accident is the common term for a blocked or ruptured blood vessel in the brain. When damage is caused to the brain by a stroke, psychological changes can occur. These can be overlooked as medical treatment concentrates on physical changes and neurological rehabilitation. Emotional changes including mood-swings, depression, tiredness and anxiety often occur following a stroke as do difficulties in mental processes including reasoning, memory and concentration. Neuropsychology aims to combat these changes by providing therapy and teaching coping methods. Recovering from a stroke requires time, patience and expertise.

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Neuropsychological evaluation of a patient’s cognitive capabilities before and after epilepsy surgery is essential in elective epilepsy surgery. On the one hand, neuropsychology provides accessory information regarding the localization and lateralization of epilepsy-associated cognitive impairment; on the other hand, it is a useful tool for quality and outcome control of epilepsy surgery which helps to make surgery more effective and safe. Evaluation of the adequacy of the brain tissues to be resected and of the patient’s mental reserve capacities allows for a prediction of the postoperative cognitive development.

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Neuropsychologists determine the extent of brain injuries through cognitive evaluations. Such sessions are necessary to understand which brain functions the injury has affected and how, as well as which ones remain unaltered. After evaluation, Neuropsychologists continue to work towards the person’s goals of understanding traumatic brain injuries and learning how to cope with the consequences of them. Neuropsychologists also provide education and support to those closest to the injured patient on how to manage their loved one’s condition. Neuropsychologists hope to better understand the conditions and consequences of their patient’s injuries, and try to make their lives as rich as possible.

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